Nutritional social work is an emerging area within the field of social work that extends beyond food security and food justice. While these aspects remain crucial, nutritional social work emphasizes the quality and adequacy of nutrition as a critical factor in individual and community well-being. The profession of social work has long engaged with food-related issues, but there is a growing need to integrate nutritional concerns at all levels of practice, including policy, community engagement, and direct practice.
The concept of food security encompasses availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability of food. However, food security alone does not guarantee nutritional well-being. Nutritional security ensures that all individuals have access not only to sufficient food but to food that is nutritious and conducive to health. The intersection of food security and nutrition security is pivotal to addressing food justice issues. Social workers must consider how economic and geographic accessibility, cultural practices, and sustainability influence food justice efforts.
Historically, social workers have played a role in addressing food insecurity through policy advocacy, community organizing, and direct intervention. The profession has contributed to policy development aimed at reducing hunger and promoting equitable food distribution. Social work literature has shown a drastic increase in discussions around food insecurity since the 1950s, with strategies ranging from policy change to direct services like food distribution programs. For example, Canada Without Poverty (CWP) advocates for a national nutritious school food program, emphasizing the need for strong, rights-based policies to ensure healthy eating is accessible for all.
Community initiatives such as food banks, pantries, and soup kitchens have been longstanding responses to food insecurity, yet these interventions often fail to address underlying structural inequalities. Increasingly, social work practice is shifting toward systemic approaches that include sustainable food production, urban farming, and community gardens to enhance food sovereignty and nutritional access. Community gardens, in particular, have been instrumental in addressing food deserts—areas where fresh food is inaccessible—and food swamps, which are flooded with unhealthy food options. Vertical farming has also emerged as a sustainable urban agricultural practice that not only improves food security but fosters community engagement and reduces environmental impact.
At the policy level, social workers advocate for rights-based approaches to food security, pushing for policies that ensure access to nutritious food, support local agriculture, and promote living wages to improve affordability. Policies must be rooted in social justice and must challenge neoliberal economic structures that perpetuate food insecurity. Social workers have a role in shaping national and international policies that prioritize nutrition as a fundamental human right. For instance, advocating for food justice includes pushing for the integration of sustainable agricultural practices, addressing the impact of climate change on food systems, and supporting local food economies.
Community-based interventions are essential for addressing food deserts and food swamps, where access to fresh, healthy food is limited or non-existent. Initiatives like community gardens and vertical farming are gaining traction as they provide sustainable food sources, empower communities, and foster resilience. Social workers engaging in nutritional social work should facilitate these efforts, ensuring that they are inclusive and culturally appropriate. The psychological benefits of such community-led initiatives are also noteworthy, as they reduce the distress associated with food insecurity and promote mental well-being through social connection and empowerment.
Direct practice in nutritional social work involves incorporating nutritional considerations into social work assessments and interventions. This includes recognizing the connections between nutrition and mental health, chronic illnesses, and overall well-being. Research indicates strong correlations between poor nutritional quality and mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety. Social workers should collaborate with nutritionists and other health professionals to provide holistic interventions that consider dietary needs as part of comprehensive care plans. Addressing food insecurity through direct practice requires an understanding of the socio-political determinants of health and a commitment to equity and empowerment.
From a critical intersectionality perspective, food insecurity disproportionately affects marginalized communities, including Indigenous populations, racial minorities, and low-income individuals. Colonial and racist land policies have contributed to structural food insecurity, and social workers must engage in decolonizing food systems. Indigenous communities often face unique challenges related to food insecurity due to historical injustices, loss of traditional lands, and systemic marginalization. Efforts to improve nutritional security must prioritize participatory approaches that empower affected communities to define their own food needs and solutions, recognizing the importance of culturally relevant food systems.
Nutritional social work represents an expansion of the social work discipline into a vital yet often overlooked aspect of human well-being. By integrating nutritional considerations into social work education, research, and practice, the profession can play a transformative role in ensuring that all individuals have access to not only food but food that nourishes and sustains. As the field continues to evolve, social workers must advocate for systemic change while engaging in grassroots initiatives that promote nutritional justice for all. Social work education should incorporate nutritional security into curricula, emphasizing its relevance in direct practice, community development, and policy advocacy. Furthermore, a robust research agenda is needed to explore the impacts of nutritional interventions on social outcomes, thereby strengthening the evidence base for nutritional social work.
This study conducts a systematic review to examine the impact of social support on the mental health of single fathers, a demographic often overlooked within family dynamics. The research aims to expose the challenges single fathers face in accessing social support and the implications for social work practice. Despite the rising prevalence of single father households, traditional gender roles and societal norms often marginalize these fathers within caregiving contexts, limiting their access to needed support systems.
A comprehensive search across five online databases led to the identification of 14 studies that fulfilled the eligibility criteria. The critical analysis of these papers, encompassing responses from 4,174 single fathers, reveals that while single fathers generally exhibit better financial stability than single mothers, they face significant mental health challenges due to job-insecurity and limited workplace support. These challenges result in higher psychological distress and poorer health outcomes compared to partnered fathers. Socio-economic status plays a crucial role, with single fathers benefiting less from informal social support networks and more from financial stability.
The review identifies two main themes: “Family Structure” and “Buffer against Socio-cultural and Economic Factors.” The first theme explores how gender, household composition, and socio-economic support influence the well-being of single fathers compared to single mothers and partnered fathers. The second theme highlights the role of social support in mitigating mental health challenges, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, which exacerbated socio-economic and cultural stressors for single fathers.
The findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions and policy measures that enhance social support networks and alleviate economic pressures for single fathers. Social work practice must consider the varied socio-economic and mental health challenges single fathers face, promoting resilience through strong support networks and flexible employment policies. This comprehensive approach can enhance the well-being of single fathers and contribute to healthier family dynamics. Future research should focus on identifying specific intervention areas to ensure support mechanisms are responsive to the evolving needs of single parents.
This study explores the realm of single fathers’ mental health by conducting a systematic review of existing research. It seeks to shed light on what the literature reveals about the impact of social support on the mental well-being of single fathers and examines the implications for social work practice. Single fatherhood represents a significant but often overlooked demographic within the broader landscape of family dynamics (Barker, 1994; Katz, 1979; Shorey & Pereira, 2023). Existing definitions of single fatherhood vary (Letablier and Wall, 2018), depending on the context, marital status, legal and residential arrangements, financial responsibility, parental involvement, cultural and social factors and personal circumstances. Based on UK government definitions (ONS, 2016, 2023), in this paper single fathers are considered as fathers who undertake primary caregiving responsibilities for their child(ren) without the presence of a spouse or partner in the household. Regardless of the expanding number of single-father households, societal norms and institutional practices often perpetuate traditional gender roles, relegating fathers to secondary caregiving roles and prioritising mothers as primary caregivers (Christie, 2006; Featherstone, 2009).
Existing literature (Bradshaw & Miller, 1991; Greif, 1992; Janikowski, 2021; Shorey & Pereira, 2023) underscores the challenges faced by single fathers in accessing support and recognition within social work systems, which are critical for their mental health outcomes, well-being and resilience (Chiu et al., 2018; George & Wilding, 1972; Louie & Crombrugghe, 2017). Despite evolving societal attitudes towards father involvement, deep-rooted biases and stereotypes persist, leading to a lack of visibility and engagement with single fathers in social work practice (Janikowski, 2021; Shapiro & Krysik, 2010). Research indicates that social work services tend to focus predominantly on mothers, with fathers being marginalised and excluded from meaningful participation in decision-making processes (Ashley et al., 2006; Brewsaugh, Masyn & Salloum, 2018). Moreover, single fathers are often subjected to societal narratives that portray them as inadequate caregivers or financial burdens on the state (Bradshaw & Miller, 1991; La Rossa & La Rossa, 1981), further complicating their mental health challenges (Garner, 2009). Such narratives exacerbate the challenges faced by single fathers in seeking support for their mental health needs. Despite the increasing acknowledgment of the importance of social support, single fathers continue to encounter barriers in accessing and utilising support services. Socio-economic disparities, cultural stigma, and institutional biases often inhibit help-seeking behaviours and limit access to support networks (Eickmeyer, 2017; Shapiro & Krysik, 2010).
In light of these findings, there is a pressing need to understand and address the relationship between social support and the mental health needs of single fathers within the social work context. This review will highlight the existing gaps, biases, and the impact of socio-economic and cultural factors on their mental well-being. Thus a literature review to explore how social support impacts the mental health of single fathers has been undertaken.
The research question was developed based on the PICO framework (Booth et al., 2022; Johnson et al., 2020; Maher et al., 2018; Taylor et al., 2015) to create specific search terms and the systematic search strategy. This approach facilitated a preliminary scoping search to identify the impact of social support on single fathers’ mental health (Karolinska Institutet University Library, 2022). Table 1 outlines the key concepts and search terms used, providing a clear framework for the literature search.
This revealed significant research gaps in the literature; therefore this dissertation investigates how social support affects the mental well-being of single fathers and examines the implications for social work practice.
Search Strategy:
The search strategy employed systematic methods to comprehensively summarise and synthesise evidence on the research question using predefined approaches and relevant databases (CINAHL, MEDLINE, APA PsycInfo, and Social Science Premium Collection) (Booth et al., 2022; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Taylor et al., 2015). Clear inclusion and exclusion criteria guided the search and selection process. The search terms, determined through a preliminary scoping review, included “single father,” “social support,” and “mental health,” with social support defined as emotional, informational, and instrumental assistance from social networks (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Cohen et al., 2000; Kent et al., 2018). Boolean operators and truncation symbols were used to enhance search outcomes (Shorey et al., 2023). Table 2 lists the key terms and articles found in the process.
The PRISMA Flow Diagram (Table 3) illustrates the article screening procedure, beginning with an initial abstract scan and progressing to a thorough review of full articles as inclusion and exclusion criteria were implemented (Booth et al., 2022; Johnson et al., 2020; Maher et al., 2018; Paige et al., 2020). It also highlights the inclusion and exclusion of the articles, providing the rationale for these decisions. This process involved assessing the data points to ensure they were relevant to the research question.
Studies considered for analysis:
The selected papers presented diverse perspectives on how social support impacts the mental health of single fathers, adhering to the research question and highlighting key themes (Booth et al., 2022; Taylor et al., 2015). The journal articles were organized in the EndNote 20 reference management tool (The EndNote Team, 2013). Key themes were identified to gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic (Booth et al., 2022; Naeem et al., 2023).
Eligibility Criteria:
Eligible studies were contemporary – prior 10 years, peer-reviewed primary research in English due to the researcher’s language barrier. Inclusion criteria were single fathers regardless of age, geographic location, socio-economic status (SES), education, sexual orientation, race and ethnicity, length of single parenthood, raising children of any age, divorced, separated, widowed, or never-married, with any custody percentage, and living alone with their children. Excluded were secondary and correlational research, thesis papers, conference proceedings, books, editorials, and reports (Shorey et al., 2023).
Quality Appraisal:
The researcher appraised the selected articles using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) checklist (Appendix 1) for systematic reviews (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme, 2018), evaluating study objectives, methodologies, researchers’ reflexivity, ethical considerations, data analysis rigor, findings, and overall research value (Shorey et al., 2023). Despite varying degrees of relevance, all studies were included to enhance the rigor of the review (Walsh & Downe, 2005).
Data Extraction:
Led by the PRISMA checklist (Liberati et al., 2009), the researcher extracted study details—such as author, publication year, study location, methods, analysis and data collection, population and main findings. Then, themes were identified through a detailed coding process, where each article was read thoroughly. This involved using both digital and paper notes, connecting themes, and integrating them into a comprehensive document (Booth et al., 2022; Shorey et al., 2023; Naeem et al., 2023; Taylor et al., 2015).
Ethical Considerations:
Systematic reviewers must accurately represent the perspectives of authors and participants to identify missing viewpoints and evaluate the relevance of their findings to specific contexts. This involves considering how publication and search biases may influence results and reflecting on their own biases during the review process. Selective and informed inclusion should guide decision-making, and transparency is crucial for ethical impact (Suri, 2020). Publication bias occurs when study results are not published due to their findings’ direction or strength, often because researchers lack access to necessary literature, leading to biases that affect evidence synthesis (Dickersin & Min, 1993). To mitigate researcher bias, the CASP checklist was utilised (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme, 2018).
Limitations:
This review acknowledges potential omissions due to unclear titles or abstracts, inadequate indexing, and various restrictions. It highlights the lack of research on racial and ethnic differences in single-fatherhood experiences, suggesting future studies in this area (Shorey et al., 2023). Limitations include small sample sizes, cross-sectional designs, biases from self-reported data, and demographic or geographic restrictions (Booth et al., 2022; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Thematic analysis, while flexible, may lead to inconsistency and incoherence in theme formulation and cannot assert conclusions about language usage (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Holloway & Todres, 2003; Nowell et al., 2017).
From the database and manual searching 298 studies were identified. After removing 130 duplicate studies and excluding 75 studies due to their publication dates, 93 studies remained for title and abstract screening by the researcher. During this screening, 55 studies were excluded for being irrelevant to the research question. Subsequently, the full texts of the remaining 38 studies were assessed against the eligibility criteria, resulting in the exclusion of 24 more studies (Shorey et al., 2023). The 14 selected studies were peer-reviewed, primary research, conducted in Canada (n=1), Germany (n=3), Iceland (n=1), Israel (n=1), Japan (n=1), New Zealand (n=1), South Korea (n=2), Sweden (n=1), United Kingdom (n=2), and United States (n=1). A total of 4,174 single father’s responses were analysed.
The critical review of the selected literature shows single mothers face poorer mental health, higher unemployment, and greater socio-economic deprivation than single fathers, who are generally more financially stable. However, single fathers face significant mental health challenges due to job-insecurity and limited workplace-support, leading to higher psychological distress and poorer health outcomes than partnered-fathers, with SES playing a crucial role. These findings were described in two main themes and five subthemes below.
Theme 1: Family Structure
This theme highlights how gender, household-composition and socio-economic support impacts the well-being of single fathers in comparison to single mothers and partnered-fathers.
Mind Matters: Exploring Gender and Economic Differences in Single Parenthood
Research comparing the mental health of single parents reveals significant differences in their experiences and outcomes. Collings et al. (2014) found that single mothers endured significantly poorer mental health compared to single fathers, due to higher rates of having preschool-aged children, unemployment, and socio-economic deprivation. Kong et al. (2017) highlighted higher rates of depression and suicidal ideation in single mothers, while single fathers showed higher prevalence of alcohol dependence, influenced by SES. Chiu et al. (2017) noted that while single fathers tended to have a less healthy lifestyle and diet, they were also less likely to be diagnosed with mood or anxiety disorders than single mothers. However, Rattay et al. (2017) found no significant differences in self-rated health between single parents, suggesting that partner status impacts health similarly across genders, which may downplay the nuanced challenges single mothers face. Fritzell et al. (2019) indicated that health disparities were more pronounced among single parents than in two-parent families, with greater differences observed among mothers. Quantitative analysis of parental social support, depression, anxiety, and parenting stress (Prokupek, 2023) revealed similar outcomes for both mothers and fathers. Results indicated that fathers typically experienced positive reactions from others, with negative feedback being rare and isolated. Overall, fathers exhibited good well-being and received comparable levels of social support to mothers in similar circumstances (Jones et al., 2022).
Collings et al. (2014) showed that single fathers have higher homeownership and lower socio-economic deprivation when compared to single mothers (Kong et al., 2017). Single fathers are also more likely to be employed, whereas single mothers are twice as likely to have a preschool-age child and work part-time (Chum et al., 2022) and benefit more from informal social support (Chiu et al., 2017; Chum et al., 2022). Single fathers face greater challenges receiving employer support for childcare responsibilities, while single mothers benefit from greater workplace flexibility due to traditional gender roles and often working low-skill jobs. However, single fathers in high-skilled employment adapt better to work-caring responsibilities (Itzayeva, 2021). Chum et al. (2022) noted that single fathers experience more significant mental-health decline with job-insecurity compared to single mothers. SES is linked to increased alcohol-dependence risk among single mothers and poor mental health among single fathers (Kong et al., 2017). Foreign-born single mothers, with sole custody arrangements, face the poorest socio-economic conditions and the highest rates of mental health issues, exacerbating their vulnerabilities (Fritzell et al., 2019).
Fatherhood in Contrast: Unpacking Mental Health and Socio-economic Differences between Single and Partnered Fathers
Research consistently indicates poorer mental health of single fathers compared to their partnered counterparts. Collings et al. (2014) found single fathers experienced higher psychological distress due to lower home-ownership rates and inadequate social support. Kong and Kim (2015) noted severe stress, depressive symptoms, and poorer quality of life among them, exacerbated by demanding socio-economic conditions. Chiu et al. (2017) and Dhungel (2023) highlighted lower educational attainment, higher unemployment and poorer health behaviours, correlating with their prevalent mental health issues. The prevalence of depression and suicidal ideation was notably higher, with poor SES being a significant factor (Kong et al., 2017). Frisch-Volkert et al. (2020) reported higher levels of mental disorders and psychopathological symptoms, supporting findings from Thorsteinsdottir et al. (2018) and Rattay et al. (2017) regarding escalating anxiety and depression and custodial father’s high levels of anxiety and worry (Fritzell et al., 2019). Despite these difficulties, Tsfati et al. (2022) found that they experienced benefits such as reduced family conflict and stronger relationships with their children. Overall, single fathers face greater mental-health challenges than their partnered peers due to deep-rooted socio-economic disparities and limited social support (Collings et al., 2014; Chiu et al., 2017; Dhungel, 2023; Frisch-Volkert et al., 2020; Kong et al., 2017; Kong & Kim, 2015; Rattay et al., 2017; Thorsteinsdottir et al., 2018; Tsfati et al., 2022). Single fathers face greater socio-economic and financial challenges than partnered parents, as illustrated by Collings et al. (2014), with home-ownership rates of 37.7–45.4% and 72.9–74.1%, respectively. Single fathers, experience pronounced social disadvantages, such as lower educational accomplishment, lower income, and higher unemployment rates (Chiu et al., 2017). These factors contribute to a troublingly higher incidence of poor self-rated well-being among single fathers when compared to partnered fathers (Chiu et al., 2017). The economic strain on single fathers is further compounded by lifestyle; namely unhealthy diet and sparse medical examinations, correlating with increased psychological distress (Dhungel, 2023).
Theme 2: Buffer against socio-cultural and economic factors
This theme highlights how social support cushion single fathers’ mental health against social, economic and unforeseen pandemic related stressors.
Community Armour: Protecting Single Fathers from Socio-Cultural Strains and Parental Stressors
Research shows that single fathers are disproportionately affected by negative socio-cultural factors, resulting in a significantly poorer quality of life compared to married fathers. This disparity is driven by lifestyle, precarious employment status, lower education, and profound lack of formal support (Chiu et al., 2017; Collings et al., 2014; Dhungel, 2023; Itzayeva, 2021; Kong & Kim, 2015; Kong et al., 2017; Tsfati et al., 2022). Additionally, being a foreign-born single father may heighten the risk-factors regarding their well-being (Fritzell et al., 2019). They experience higher rates of anxiety (Thorsteinsdottir et al., 2018) depression, stress (Tsfati et al., 2022), back pain, smoking, lack of physical activity, neglected dental health (Rattay et al., 2017) and challenges due to perceived male gender norms as providers and caregivers (Itzayeva, 2021, Tsfati et al., 2022). Although, strong social networks are essential for helping single parents navigate the complexities of solo parenting and mitigate stressors, single fathers often find themselves with severely limited access to these essential resources (Collings et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2022;; Tsfati et al., 2022; Thorsteinsdottir et al., 2018). This lack of support not only heightens their vulnerability but also amplifies the stigma and discrimination they face (Jones et al., 2022).
Strength in Numbers: How Social Support Fortifies Single Fathers against Socio-economic Stressors
Social support is essential, but often insufficient for single parents, acting as a fragile buffer against the overwhelming socio-economic stressors that significantly undermine their physical and mental health (Kong et al., 2017). Research consistently demonstrates that single fathers often face substantial challenges, such as job-insecurity, low income, and inadequate social benefits, which significantly impact their quality of life and mental well-being (Chum et al., 2022; Collings et al., 2014). For instance, they are significantly more likely to experience stress, depressive symptoms and poorer mental health compared to their married counterparts, largely due to socio-economic disadvantages (Chiu et al., 2017; Dhungel, 2023; Kong & Kim, 2015). The absence of robust institutional support during crises, like the pandemic, further exacerbates their stress-levels (Tsfati et al., 2022). Single fathers, who are able to afford and obtain supportive networks can better manage parenting stress and combat feelings of stigma and isolation (Jones et al., 2022). Social benefits, although less utilised by single fathers compared to single mothers, provide a financial buffer that can alleviate some economic pressures, which can improve their well-being (Chum et al., 2022). Moreover, single fathers with higher-income jobs are likely have better access to flexible work arrangements and quality childcare, which can help balance work-caregiving responsibilities, thus reducing stress (Iztayeva, 2021; Jones et al., 2022). However, this reliance on individual circumstances reinforces systemic inequalities, since not all single fathers can access high-income jobs or supportive networks, highlighting the urgent need for structural changes to better support this vulnerable population.
Resilient Together: The Role of Social Support in Mitigating Mental Health Challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Various papers (Iztayeva, 2021; Prokupek, 2023; Tsfati et al., 2022) show the critical role of social support in buffering single fathers against mental health challenges, particularly during the pandemic. Before, they often relied on extended family for childcare, especially those in low-skill jobs who found formal childcare unaffordable (Iztayeva, 2021). However, the pandemic disrupted these informal support systems and exacerbated pre-existing stressors such as financial insecurity and social isolation, leading to increased psychological strain (Tsfati et al., 2022). Despite these challenges, the availability of support networks played a critical role in mitigating negative impacts. Support from mental health professionals and community networks helped alleviate feelings of loneliness, mitigated their vulnerability and improved their well-being (Tsfati et al., 2022). The single parents who already relied on social support prior to the lockdown, showed stable employment and only moderate changes in external childcare, potentially due to emergency provisions that reduced the need for additional support. This enabled single fathers to educate and spend quality time with their children, while experiencing similar levels of stress (Prokupek, 2023). This increased involvement with their children during lockdowns provided an unexpected source of emotional support and a sense of fulfilment, highlighting the dual role of single fathers as both caregivers and financial providers (Tsfati et al., 2022). Therefore, the presence of robust social support systems significantly cushioned the impact of pandemic-related stressors on single fathers’ mental health and well-being, yet it also highlights the precarious nature of their reliance on such support.
Understanding the well-being of single fathers is essential in addressing the broader implications of family structure on mental health and socio-economic stability. This systematic review explored the nuanced differences in mental health outcomes and socio-economic challenges faced by single fathers in comparison to single mothers and partnered fathers. The contrasting experiences of these demographics reveal the critical influence of gender, household composition, and socio-economic support on mental health. While single fathers often struggle with less flexible workplace support and higher job-insecurity, they benefit from social networks and financial stability, which can offset some mental health stressors. Conversely, single mothers frequently struggle with higher rates of unemployment and depression, exacerbated by socio-economic deprivation and childcare responsibilities. Analysing these dynamics through the lens of status characteristic theory (Berger et al. 1977; Wagner and Berger 1997), which suggests that men typically receive a fatherhood bonus due to their higher social status (Berger et al. 1977), we can discern how societal biases shape these outcomes. Single fathers, despite facing job-insecurity, are often perceived more favourably in professional environments, receiving implicit socio-economic advantages. On the other hand, single mothers endure a motherhood penalty, as caregiving is devalued and deemed “women’s work” (Folbre, 2018), leading to systemic disadvantages such as increased unemployment and severe mental health challenges (Correll et al. 2007; Ridgeway and Correll 2004). Additionally, the role of social support networks emerges as a key buffer against socio-economic stressors, particularly evident during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This analysis emphasises the importance of fostering supportive environments and tailored interventions to enhance the well-being of single parents across different socio-economic landscapes.
The relationship between socio-economic deprivation and poorer mental health has been recognised in the general population (Oakley-Browne et al., 2006), with the emphasis on single parents (Crosier et al., 2007; Hope et al., 1999; Kim and Kim, 2012). This aligns with Avison and Davies (2005) and Collings et al. (2014) findings, that single mothers generally experience higher degrees of psychological distress compared to single fathers, largely due to socio-economic deprivation. Conversely, Wade et al. (2011) found that while single mothers had a higher risk of psychiatric disorders compared to single fathers, SES accounted for a larger proportion of this risk in fathers (37%) than in mothers (14%).
Within the general population, single fathers earn more than single mothers (Grall, 2020; Livingston, 2013), and the latter receive more social support (Grall, 2020; Hertz & Ferguson, 1997). Chum et al., (2022) found that job-insecurity impacted partnered parents and childless individual’s mental health less than lone fathers, while lone mothers were unaffected. They argued that limited resources play a critical role managing the possibility of job loss, which is linked to increased stress. This indicates that job-insecurity is linked to poorer mental health outcomes, as shown previously (Abbafati et al., 2020; Andrea et al., 2009; Burgard et al., 2009; Ferrie et al., 1998; Ferrie et al., 2002; Lassalle et al., 2015; Meltzer et al., 2010; Rugulies et al., 2006; Rugulies et al., 2010; Watson & Osberg, 2018).
Therefore, while single mothers are more exposed to psychological distress, the impact of socio-economic factors on mental health may be more pronounced in single fathers. For instance, increased financial instability and lack of social support, particularly in economic downturns, can exacerbate mental health issues, such as mood, substance disorders and suicidal ideation (Tobias et al., 2009) in single fathers (Artazcoz et al., 2004; Berk et al., 2006; European Commission, 2013). Studies by Klose and Jacobi (2004) and Wade et al. (2011) reported no significant gender differences in the impact of single parenthood on mental disorders, a finding supported by Chiu et al. (2017), who described no disparities in self-rated well-being between single mothers and fathers. However, several research articles argue that insufficient financial and social support among single parents contribute to higher depression rates (Cairney et al., 2003; Crosier et al., 2007; Targosz et al., 2003; Wade et al., 2011) worse self-rated health (Curtis & Phipps, 2004; Rousou et al., 2013) and key predictors of mental illness (Honkalampi et al., 2005). Likewise, studies highlight significant health inequalities that persist after accounting for socio-economic variables (Benzeval, 1998; Fritzell & Burstrom, 2006; Rahkonen et al., 2005; Siahpush, 2004; Wang, 2004) or social support (Rahkonen et al., 2005; Wang, 2004). For instance, substance use disorders are more prevalent among men (Kessler et al., 2005), they have four times less healthcare appointments per year than women (Hippisley-Cox & Vinogradova, 2009) due to various socio-economic and day-to-day challenges, which may postpone diagnoses of significant health problems (Banks & Baker, 2013).
In comparison to partnered parents, lone fathers lack the resources and opportunities to mitigate their economic vulnerabilities or develop their career further (Abu et al., 2018; Backhaus et al., 2002; Collins et al., 2001). Similarly, Crosier et al., (2007) and Kim et al. (2001) reported that single fathers have endured more adverse socio-economic conditions and well-being (Cooper et al, 2008; Kim & Kim, 2012; Meadows, 2009; Wade et al., 2011; Westin & Westerling, 2006) in comparison to other demographics. Furthermore, they present worse quality of life, depression, stress (Kong and Kim, 2015), and more prevalent mental disorders (Cooper et al., 2008).
Child custody, raising more than two children, (especially if they are under 10 years old) linked to depressive symptoms of single parents (Song, 2007; Yoon et al., 2009). DeKlyen et al. (2006) reported that fathers experience anxiety and depression at rates similar to or higher than their female counterparts, while studies (Collings et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2015; Wade et al., 2011) show higher rates of depression and suicidal ideation in single mothers, followed by single fathers and partnered fathers. In contrast, men are at a higher risk of suicide and often have under-diagnosed or hidden depression (Brownhill et al., 2005; Kilmartin, 2005), possibly due to traditional masculinity roles (Courtenay, 2000, Galdas, 2013; Veskrna, 2010) or because single fathers frequently under-report mental disorders or are unaware of them, therefore they are undiagnosed and remain untreated (Addis & Mahalik, 2003; Angst et al., 2016; Brown et al., 2019; Emslie et al., 2006).
Regarding self-rated health, there are no substantial differences shown amongst single fathers and mothers, implying that partner status similarly affects health across genders (Rattay et al., 2017). Similarly, Wade et al. (2011) also reported comparable rates of mood, anxiety, substance-use disorders and psychological distress (Kamp Dush, 2013) among lone parents, which had a higher prevalence than their partnered counterparts. Consistent with a limited body of research on solo parents (Carone et al., 2020; Golombok et al., 2016; 2021), both groups exhibited high psychological adjustment levels, aligning with general population standards for health measures. These findings above imply that single father’s mental health is better than single mothers, but worse than their partnered counterpart (Benzeval, 1998).
Our findings show the importance of social support, especially for men in relation to their mental health. It is essential for adaptability (Dunn et al., 2001; Jackson and Kiehl, 2017; Manning et al., 2011; Martin-West, 2019; Prokupek, 2023; Wierda-Boer et al., 2008), mitigating stress, risk (Cairney et al., 2003, Oppermann et al., 2021), loneliness and isolation (De Jong Gierveld et al., 2016; Hawkley and Cacioppo, 2010). It also linked to good physical and mental health (Fagan and Lee, 2011; Luo et al., 2012) and economic welfare (Henly et al., 2005). As one of the themes indicates, social support plays a key role as a buffer against challenges and stressors (Degarmo et al., 2008), for instance mitigating parenting stress (Parkes et al., 2015).
However, men usually lack a large support network, as they often rely on their intimate partner (Carr, 2004; Carr and Pudrovska, 2012; Crowley, 2018), which limits the quality and quantity of support single fathers have access to (Carr and Pudrovska 2012; Haxton and Harknett 2009). According to Jones et al., (2022), while this support is generally positive and supportive, single fathers experience various stressors, such as stigma and prejudice (Bock, 2000; Mayer, 1995, 2013). Regarding social support, especially from other single parents, fathers emphasised its significance in reducing their vulnerability and loneliness, and improving their well-being (Tsfati et al., 2022). This corroborates with previous research, linking informal support to parents’ health during the Covid-19 lockdown (Brown et al., 2020; Craig & Churchill, 2021). However, practitioners should be mindful that even without a global epidemic, most parents exposed to various stressors due to their parenting role (Griffith, 2020), which can lead to parental burnout (Griffith, 2020; Mikolajczak et al., 2019).
The evidence underscores the complex relationship between SES, gender, and mental health among single parents. While single mothers generally experience higher levels of psychological distress, socio-economic factors seem to have a more pronounced effect on the mental health of single fathers, exacerbating their vulnerability to depression, substance disorders, and suicidal ideation. The disparity in earnings and social support between single mothers and fathers highlights the critical role of financial stability and social networks in mitigating mental health risks. Despite the gender differences in mental health outcomes, single parents face significant challenges that stem from their unique SES and limited support systems. This calls for targeted interventions and policy measures that address the specific needs of single parents, enhance social support networks, and alleviate economic pressures. Ensuring access to mental health services and promoting gender-sensitive support mechanisms can help improve the overall well-being of single parents and their children, ultimately fostering a more equitable and supportive societal framework.
This chapter synthesises this systematic review’s key points on the mental health and socio-economic challenges faced by single fathers worldwide, compared to single mothers and partnered fathers. Research indicates that single mothers experience poorer mental health, higher unemployment, and greater socio-economic deprivation than single fathers, who generally enjoy higher financial stability. However, single fathers face significant mental health challenges due to job-insecurity and limited workplace support, with higher rates of psychological distress and poorer health behaviours than partnered fathers. SES heavily influences these outcomes, with single mothers benefiting more from informal social support networks, while single fathers rely on financial stability and social networks to mitigate stress.
The COVID-19 pandemic further exposed these vulnerabilities, with single fathers facing heightened financial insecurity and social isolation. However, those with robust social support networks, both formal and informal, were better able to manage stress and maintain well-being. The presence of supportive communities and institutional backing emerged as crucial for buffering against socio-economic and pandemic-related stressors. Despite these supports, single fathers often contend with societal stigma and limited access to comprehensive social networks, exacerbating their mental health struggles.
The analysis highlights the importance of tailored interventions and supportive environments for single parents. Gender-sensitive policies and access to mental health services are essential to address the unique challenges faced by single fathers and mothers. Ensuring financial stability and enhancing social support systems can significantly improve their overall well-being and that of their children. This calls for targeted policy measures that recognize the distinct needs of single parents, fostering a more equitable and supportive societal framework. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for social work practice in Scotland. Practitioners must consider the varied socio-economic and mental health challenges single parents face and provide holistic support that addresses both immediate and long-term needs. By promoting resilience through strong support networks and flexible employment policies, social workers can help mitigate the adverse effects of socio-economic stressors on single parents. This comprehensive approach can ultimately enhance the well-being of single fathers and mothers, contributing to healthier family dynamics and more stable communities. Future research should focus on identifying specific areas where intervention can be most effective, ensuring that support mechanisms are responsive to the evolving needs of single parents in different socio-economic contexts.
Beyond Barriers 